High speed homogenization assisted encapsulation of synergistic essential oils formulation: Characterization, in vitro release study, safety profile, and efficacy towards mitigation of aflatoxin B1 induced deterioration in rice samples.

Application of essential oils to mitigate aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination in food is a current research hotspot; however, their direct incorporation may cause toxic effects, and changes in food organoleptic properties. This work aimed to synthesize novel synergistic formulation of Pinus roxburghii, Juniperus communis, and Cupressus sempervirens essential oils by mixture design assay (PJC) and encapsulation of PJC formulation into chitosan nanocomposite (Nm-PJC) with an aim to protect stored rice (Oryza sativa L., prime staple food) against fungi and AFB1 mediated loss of valuable minerals, macronutrients, and fatty acids. Nm-PJC was characterized through DLS, SEM, FTIR, and XRD analyses, along with controlled delivery from chitosan nanobiopolymer. Encapsulation of synergistic formulation into chitosan-nanomatrix improved antifungal (4.0 µL/mL), antiaflatoxigenic (3.5 µL/mL), and antioxidant activities (P < 0.05). Impairment in ergosterol and methylglyoxal biosynthesis along with in-silico-homology-modeling of major components with Ver-1 and Omt-A proteins advocated chemico-molecular interaction responsible for fungal growth inhibition and AFB1 secretion. In addition, in-situ efficacy against lipid-peroxidation, fatty acid biodeterioration, and preservation of minerals, macronutrients without affecting organoleptic attributes in rice and high mammalian safety profile (9874.23 µL/kg) suggested practical application of synergistic nanoformulation as innovative smart, and green candidate to mitigate AFB1 contamination, and shelf-life extension of stored food products.

Identifying Chemical Composition, Safety and Bioactivity of Thai Rice Grass Extract Drink in Cells and Animals.

Rice grass has been reported to contain bioactive compounds that possess antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities. We aimed to assess rice grass extract (RGE) drink by determining catechin content, free-radical scavenging and iron-binding properties, as well as toxicity in cells and animals. Young rice grass (Sukhothai-1 strain) was dried, extracted with hot water and lyophilized in a vacuum chamber. The resulting extract was reconstituted with deionized water (260 mg/40 mL) and served as Sukhothai-1 rice grass extract drink (ST1-RGE). HPLC results revealed at least eight phenolic compounds, for which the major catechins were catechin, epicatechin and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (2.71-3.57, 0.98-1.85 and 25.47-27.55 mg/40 mL serving, respectively). Elements (As, Cu, Pb, Sn and Zn) and aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1 and G2) contents did not exceed the relevant limits when compared with WHO guideline values. Importantly, ST1-RGE drink exerted radical-scavenging, iron-chelating and anti-lipid peroxidation properties in aqueous and biological environments in a concentration-dependent manner. The drink was not toxic to cells and animals. Thus, Sukhothai-1 rice grass product is an edible drink that is rich in catechins, particularly EGCG, and exhibited antioxidant, free radical scavenging and iron-binding/chelating properties. The product represents a functional drink that is capable of alleviating conditions of oxidative stress and iron overload.

Genotoxicity of three mycotoxin contaminants of rice: 28-day multi-endpoint assessment in rats.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisin B1 (FB1), as the main mycotoxins contaminating rice, often coexist in food. Thus, we have measured the genotoxicity of the three rice fungal contaminants, singly and in different combinations, with a 28-day multi-endpoint (Pig-a assay + in vivo micronucleus [MN] test + comet assay) genotoxicity platform. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received the agents orally via gavage for 28 consecutive days, before performing the abovementioned tests. Results indicated that low dose of a single mycotoxin did not show significant genotoxicity. However, some of these mycotoxins in combination induced significant genotoxicity in the peripheral blood and tissues, at sacrifice. In the peripheral blood, the binary combination of DON and FB1 significantly induced MN. In the liver, ZEN might aggravate the DNA-damaging effects of DON and FB1. Therefore, the genotoxicity of sub-chronic exposure to mycotoxins in combination cannot be ignored.

Absence of subchronic oral toxicity and genotoxicity of rice koji with Aspergillus terreus.

Koji products have been considered as an effective fermented food consumed in East Asia with many health benefits. Particularly, rice koji with Aspergillus terreus (RAT) has been reported to be able to prevent hyperlipidemia and hepatic steatosis through regulating cholesterol synthesis. Despite its biological activities, there is a lack of comprehensive information to give an assurance of its safety. Therefore, the objective of this study was to perform a series of toxicological studies (repeated dose oral toxicity and genotoxicity) according to test guidelines published by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Along with acute toxicity study using rats and beagle dogs, a 13-week toxicity study revealed no clear RAT-related toxic changes, including body weight, mortality, hematology, serum biochemistry, organ weight, and histopathology after oral administration at doses of 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg BW. The no-observed-adverse-effect level of RAT was considered to be more than 2000 mg/kg BW/day in rats of both genders. In addition, potential genotoxicity was evaluated using a standard battery of tests (Ames test, chromosome aberration assay, and micronucleus assay) which revealed that RAT showed no genotoxicity. Accordingly, these results suggest that RAT is a safe and non-toxic functional food for human consumption at proper dose.

Effect of stable antimicrobial nano-silver packaging on inhibiting mildew and in storage of rice.

Antimicrobial nano-silver packaging (ANP) films were synthesized by blending polyethylene and highly dispersed Ag/TiO2 powder for rice storage at 37°C and 70% relative humidity. ANP films were characterized by X-ray diffraction and silver migration. The antimicrobial activity of the films was assessed on Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) by scanning electron microscope and total plate count, and the storage quality of rice was evaluated by texture analyzer and rapid viscosity analyzer. The results show that ANP had a quite beneficial effect on the antimildew and physicochemical property as compared to the normal PE packaging. During 35days storage, the migration of silver into rice was not evident. A lower microbial population is observed on ANP that should be attributed to the presence of Ag/TiO2. Furthermore, rice packed by ANP shows an enhanced quality with regards to texture and pasting properties. Therefore, ANP is a promising packaging material for rice storage.

Three-generation reproduction toxicity study of genetically modified rice with insect resistant genes.

In the present work, we evaluated the three generation reproductive toxicity of the genetically modified rice with insectresistant cry1Ac and sck genes. 120 Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were divided into three groups which were fed with genetically modified rice diet (GM group), parental control rice diet (PR group) and AIN-93 control diet (both used as negative control) respectively. Bodyweight, food consumption, reproductive data, hematological parameters, serum chemistry, relative organ weights and histopathology for each generation were examined respectively. All the hematology and serum chemistry parameters, organ/body weight indicators were within the normal range or no change to the adverse direction was observed, although several differences in hematology and serum chemistry parameters (WBC, BUN, LDH of male rat, PLT, PCT, MPV of female rats), reproductive data (rate of morphologically abnormal sperm) were observed between GM rice group and two control groups. No macroscopic or histological adverse effects were found or considered as treatment-related, either. Overall, the three generation study of genetically modified rice with cry1Ac and sck genes at a high level showed no unintended adverse effects on rats's reproductive system.

Estudio de los parámetros que afectan al contenido de deoxinivalenol en cereales o alimentos a base de cereales obtenidos en comercios de Valencia (España) / Study of several parameters affecting the deoxynivalenol content in cereal and cereal-based products from Valencia (Spain)

Las micotoxinas son metabolitos fúngicos que aparecen comúnmente como contaminantes de muchos cereales y pueden causar una amplia variedad de efectos tóxicos. En el presente estudio, se analizó un total de 182 muestras de diferentes cereales (arroz, trigo, maíz, avena, espelta, soja y tapioca) obtenidos en establecimientos de la Comunidad Valenciana (España). Se examina la presencia de deoxinivalenol (DON) y se realiza un estudio estadístico de las muestras según el tipo de cultivo (orgánico o convencional), su composición, el tipo de producto y la marca (comercial o blanca) para estimar si estos parámetros influyen en la concentración de DON. Del total de muestras, 111 estaban contaminadas con DON, pero en concentraciones inferiores a los límites permitidos por la legislación europea. Se observó mayor incidencia de DON en muestras de trigo (80%) seguidas de maíz (35%) y arroz (13%), pero sin diferencia significativa (p>0,05) entre el tipo de cereal; ni con la práctica agrícola. Sin embargo, los resultados demostraron que el tipo de producto en el cereal procesado (p<0,001; los productos a base de lluvia y sémola presentaran valores mayores de DON que los fideos), los componentes del alimento procesado (p<0,01; los niveles de DON eran superiores en las rosquilletas de pan simples respecto a las rosquilletas con queso y con chocolate ) y la marca (p<0,05; las marcas blancas contienen más DON que las comerciales) si influyen en los niveles de DON hallados en las muestras de trigo (AU)

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that commonly appear as contaminants in many cereals and can cause a variety of toxic effects. In this study, a total of 182 samples of different cereals (rice, wheat, corn, oats, spelt, soy and tapioca) obtained in establishments of Valencia (Spain) were analyzed. The presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) was determined and a statistical study of the samples was performed according to the type of crop (organic or conventional), its composition, the type of product and brand (commercial or white) to estimate whether these parameters influence DON concentration. Of the total samples, 111 were contaminated with DON, but their concentration were below the limits allowed by European legislation. Higher DON concentration was observed in wheat samples (80%) followed by corn (35%) and rice (13%), but no significant difference (p> 0.05) between the type of cereal; or harvest conditions. However, the results showed that the type of product in the processing cereal (p <0.001; the rain-based products and grits presented higher values of DON than noodles), processed food components (p <0.01; DON levels were higher in simple snacks than snacks bread with cheese and chocolate) and brand (p <0.05; white brands contain more DON than commercial ones) have related to DON concentration found in wheat samples (AU)

Rice husks and their hydrochars cause unexpected stress response in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans: reduced transcription of stress-related genes.

Currently, char substrates gain a lot of interest since soils amended with such substrates are being discussed to increase in fertility and productivity, water retention, and mitigation of greenhouse gases. Char substrates can be produced by carbonization of organic matter. Among different process conditions, temperature is the main factor controlling the occurrence of organic and inorganic contaminants such as phenols and furfurals, which may affect target and non-target organisms. The hydrochar produced at 200 °C contained both furfural and phenol with concentrations of 282 and 324 mg kg(-1) in contrast to the 300 °C hydrochar, which contained only phenol with a concentration of 666 mg kg(-1). By washing with acetone and water, these concentrations were significantly reduced. In this study, the potential toxic effects of hydrochars on the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans were investigated via gene transcription studies using the following four matrices: (i) raw rice husk, (ii) unwashed rice char, (iii) acetone/water washed rice char, and (iv) the wash water of the two rice chars produced at 200 and 300 °C via hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). Furthermore, genetically modified strains, where the green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene sequence is linked to a reporter gene central in specific anti-stress regulations, were also exposed to these matrices. Transgenic worms exposed to hydrochars showed very weak, if any, fluorescence, and expression of the associated RNAs related to stress response and biotransformation genes was surprisingly downregulated. Similar patterns were also found for the raw rice husk. It is hypothesized that an unidentified chemical trigger exists in the rice husk, which is not destroyed during the HTC process. Therefore, the use of GFP transgenic nematode strains cannot be recommended as a general rapid monitoring tool for farmers treating their fields with artificial char. However, it is hypothesized that the observed reduced transcriptional response with the subsequent lack of energy-consuming stress response is an energy-saving mechanism in the exposed nematodes. If this holds true in future studies, this finding opens the window to an innovative new field of stress ecology.

Subchronic toxicity study in vivo and allergenicity study in vitro for genetically modified rice that expresses pharmaceutical protein (human serum albumin).

Genetically modified (GM) crops that express pharmaceutical proteins have become an important focus of recent genetic engineering research. Food safety assessment is necessary for the commercial development of these crops. Subchronic toxicity study in vivo and allergenicity study in vitro were designed to evaluate the food safety of the rice variety expressing human serum albumin (HSA). Animals were fed rodent diets containing 12.5%, 25.0% and 50.0% GM or non-GM rice for 90 days. The composition analysis of the GM rice demonstrated several significant differences. However, most of the differences remained within the ranges reported in the literature. In the animal study, a range of indexes including clinical observation, feed efficiency, hematology, serum chemistry, organ weights and histopathology were examined. Random changes unrelated to the GM rice exposure, within the range of historical control values and not associated with any signs of illness were observed. The results of heat stability and in vitro digestion of HSA indicated no evidence of potential allergenicity of the protein. Overall, the results of these studies suggest that the GM rice appears to be safe as a dietary ingredient when it is used at up to 50% in the diet on a subchronic basis.

Rice methylmercury exposure and mitigation: a comprehensive review.

Rice cultivation practices from field preparation to post-harvest transform rice paddies into hot spots for microbial mercury methylation, converting less-toxic inorganic mercury to more-toxic methylmercury, which is likely translocated to rice grain. This review includes 51 studies reporting rice total mercury and/or methylmercury concentrations, based on rice (Orzya sativa) cultivated or purchased in 15 countries. Not surprisingly, both rice total mercury and methylmercury levels were significantly higher in polluted sites compared to non-polluted sites (Wilcoxon rank sum, p<0.001). However, rice percent methylmercury (of total mercury) did not differ statistically between polluted and non-polluted sites (Wilcoxon rank sum, p=0.35), suggesting comparable mercury methylation rates in paddy soil across these sites and/or similar accumulation of mercury species for these rice cultivars. Studies characterizing the effects of rice cultivation under more aerobic conditions were reviewed to determine the mitigation potential of this practice. Rice management practices utilizing alternating wetting and drying (instead of continuous flooding) caused soil methylmercury levels to spike, resulting in a strong methylmercury pulse after fields were dried and reflooded; however, it is uncertain whether this led to increased translocation of methylmercury from paddy soil to rice grain. Due to the potential health risks, it is advisable to investigate this issue further, and to develop separate water management strategies for mercury polluted and non-polluted sites, in order to minimize methylmercury exposure through rice ingestion.

Effects of genetically modified T2A-1 rice on the GI health of rats after 90-day supplement.

Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal toxin (Bt) rice will be commercialized as a main food source. Traditional safety assessments on genetically modified products pay little attention on gastrointestinal (GI) health. More data about GI health of Bt rice must be provided to dispel public' doubts about the potential effects on human health. We constructed an improved safety assessment animal model using a basic subchronic toxicity experiment, measuring a range of parameters including microflora composition, intestinal permeability, epithelial structure, fecal enzymes, bacterial activity, and intestinal immunity. Significant differences were found between rice-fed groups and AIN93G-fed control groups in several parameters, whereas no differences were observed between genetically modified and non-genetically modified groups. No adverse effects were found on GI health resulting from genetically modified T2A-1 rice. In conclusion, this study may offer a systematic safety assessment model for GM material with respect to the effects on GI health.

[Nutritional components and sub-chronic toxicity of genetically modified rice expressing human lactoferrin].

OBJECTIVE: To compare the nutritional components of genetically modified rice expressing human lactoferrin (hLf) with its parental rice, and to observe the sub-chronic toxicity of hLf rice. METHODS: The nutritional components of hLf rice and its parental rice were determined by the National Standard Methods. Eighty weanling Wistar rats were randomly divided into 4 groups based on their gender and body weight: group A (hLf rice high-dose group with 71.45% rice), group B (hLf rice medium-dose group with 35. 725% rice), group C (parental rice group with 71.01% rice) and group D (AIN-93G diet group), and the latter two groups were used as the control. Body weight, dietary intake, blood routine test, blood biochemical examination, organ coefficient, bone density and the pathology of organs were investigated at the end of a 90-day feeding experiment. RESULTS: Except for human lactoferrin and Fe, there was no difference of main nutritional components, minerals and vitamins between groups. The differences of some indicators of blood routine (WBC, HGB, RBC and MCH), blood biochemistry (AST and GLU), organ coefficient and bone density between group A and B (hLf rice) with group C (parental rice) or group D (AIN-93G) were significant, while no difference of other indicators. CONCLUSION: Although some differences were observed, all indicators were still in the normal reference range. Therefore, there was no sign of toxic and adverse effects for hLf rice on rats.

A 90-day safety study of genetically modified rice expressing rhIGF-1 protein in C57BL/6J rats.

Genetically modified plants expressing disease resistance traits offer new treatment strategies for human diseases, but at the same time present a challenge in terms of food safety assessment. The present 90-day feeding study was designed to assess the safety of transgenic rice expressing the recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-1 (rhIGF-1) compared to its parental wild rice. Male and female C57BL/6J rats were given a nutritionally balanced purified diet with 20% transgenic rhIGF-1 rice or 20% parental rice for 90 days. This corresponds to a mean daily rhIGF-1 protein intake of approximately 217.6 mg/kg body weight based on the average feed consumption. In the animal study a range of biological, biochemical, clinical, microbiological and pathological parameters were examined and several significant differences were observed between groups, but none of the effects were considered to be adverse. In conclusion, no adverse or toxic effects on C57BL/6J rats were observed in the design used in this 90-day study. These results will provide valuable information for the safety assessment of genetically modified food crops.

A 90-day toxicology study of high-amylose transgenic rice grain in Sprague-Dawley rats.

A transgenic rice line (TRS) with high amylose level has been developed by antisense RNA inhibition of starch branching enzymes. Compositional analysis of TRS demonstrated that the content of resistant starch (RS) was significantly higher compared to conventional non-transgenic rice. High level of RS is an important raw material in food industry and has various physiological effects for human health. In order to provide the reliable theory basis for field release of TRS rice, we evaluated the potential health effects of long-term consumption of the TRS. The 90-day toxicology feeding experiment was conducted in Sprague-Dawley rats fed with diets containing 70% of either TRS rice flour, its near-isogenic rice flour or the control diet. The clinical performance variables (body weight, body weight gain and food consumption) were measured and pathological responses (hematological parameters and serum chemistry at the midterm and the completion of the experiment, urinalysis profile and serum sex hormone response at the completion of the experiment) were performed. Besides, clinical signs, relative organ weights and microscopic observations were also compared between TRS group and its near-isogenic rice group. The combined data indicates that high-amylose TRS grain is as safe as the conventional non-transgenic rice for rat consumption.

A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants.

In recent years, there has been a notable concern on the safety of genetically modified (GM) foods/plants, an important and complex area of research, which demands rigorous standards. Diverse groups including consumers and environmental Non Governmental Organizations (NGO) have suggested that all GM foods/plants should be subjected to long-term animal feeding studies before approval for human consumption. In 2000 and 2006, we reviewed the information published in international scientific journals, noting that the number of references concerning human and animal toxicological/health risks studies on GM foods/plants was very limited. The main goal of the present review was to assess the current state-of-the-art regarding the potential adverse effects/safety assessment of GM plants for human consumption. The number of citations found in databases (PubMed and Scopus) has dramatically increased since 2006. However, new information on products such as potatoes, cucumber, peas or tomatoes, among others was not available. Corn/maize, rice, and soybeans were included in the present review. An equilibrium in the number research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was currently observed. Nevertheless, it should be noted that most of these studies have been conducted by biotechnology companies responsible of commercializing these GM plants. These findings suggest a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies. All this recent information is herein critically reviewed.

Effects of transgenic Bt rice on growth, reproduction, and superoxide dismutase activity of Folsomia candida (Collembola: Isotomidae) in laboratory studies.

Transgenic rice expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) CrylAb protein is expected to be commercialized in China in the near future. The use of Bt rice for controlling insect pests sparks intensive debates regarding its biosafety. Folsomia candida is an euedaphic species and is often used as a "standard" test organism in assessing effects of environmental pollutants on soil organisms. In this study, growth, development, reproduction, and superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) of F. candida were investigated in the laboratory for populations reared on leaf tissue or leaf-soil mixtures of two CrylAb rice lines and a non-Bt rice isoline. Two independent tests were performed: 1) a 35-d test using petri dishes containing yeast diet (positive control) or fresh rice leaf tissue, and 2) a 28-d test in soil-litter microcosms containing yeast or a mixture of soil and rice leaf tissue. Biological parameters measured in both tests were number of progeny production, population growth rate, and SOD activity. For the petri dish test, data measured also included insect body length and number of exuviation. There were no significant differences between the populations reared on Bt and non-Bt rice leaf tissue in all measured parameters in both tests and for both Bt rice lines, suggesting no significant effects of the CrylAb protein in Bt rice on F. candida in the laboratory studies. Results of this study should add additional biosafety proofs for use of Bt rice to manage rice pests in China.

Monitoring the trace metals concentration in rice by flame atomic absorption spectrometer and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer.

The objective of this study was to monitor the concentration of trace metals in rice. Eight different commercial rice samples were collected from retail market and among these samples Fe, Cd, Cr and Zn metal concentrations were determined by using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (FAAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrophotometer (ICP-AES). The powdered rice samples were digested by wet chemical method. The analytical results obtained by both the instruments were found comparable. The accuracy of the method has been confirmed by analyzing Certified Reference Material CRM No. 10-b of National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES). The concentrations of Fe, Cd, Cr and Zn in different brands were found in the range of 15.4 +/- 1.1 to 57.7 +/- 2.5 mg/kg, 0.08 +/- 0.03 to 0.39 +/- 0.05 mg/kg, 0.16 +/- 0.03 to 0.58 +/- 0.08 mg/kg and 7.3 +/- 0.3 to 18.6 +/- 0.5 mg/kg respectively. The standard deviation of the measurements has been calculated for Fe, Cd, Cr and Zn in six replicates of each sample and was found to be less than +/- 3% by the method proposed.

[Subchronic toxicity test of genetically modified rice with double antisense starch-branching enzyme gene].

OBJECTIVE: To observe the sub-chronic toxic effects of the genetically modified rice with double antisense SBE gene. METHODS: Based on gender and weight, weanling Wistar rats were randomly sorted into five groups: non-genetically modified rice group (group A), genetically modified rice group (group B), half genetically modified rice group (group C), quarter genetically modified rice group (group D) and AIN-93G normal diet group (group E). Indicators were the followings: body weight, food consumption, blood routine, blood biochemical test, organ weight, bone density and pathological examination of organs. RESULTS: At the middle of the experiment, the percentage of monocyte of female group B was less than that of group E (P < 0.05). AST activity of female group B was higher than that of group E (P < 0.05). ALT activity of female group C was higher than that of groups A and E (P < 0.05). At the end of the experiment, AST and ALT activities of female group B were higher than those of group E (P < 0.05). Hematocrit (HCT) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) level of male group B were less than those of group A (P < 0.05), and monocyte was higher than that of group E (P < 0.05). The brain index of female group B was higher than group A (P < 0.05) and the kidney index of group E were higher than those of groups B, C and D (P < 0.05). There were no significant difference of blood lipids, calcium and bone mineral density among all groups (P > 0.05), and no notable abnormity in the pathological examination of main organs (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: There were no enough evidence to confirm the sub-chronic toxicity of genetically modified rice on rats.

Methylmercury exposure and health effects from rice and fish consumption: a review.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is highly toxic, and its principal target tissue in humans is the nervous system, which has made MeHg intoxication a public health concern for many decades. The general population is primarily exposed to MeHg through consumption of contaminated fish and marine mammals, but recent studies have reported high levels of MeHg in rice and confirmed that in China the main human exposure to MeHg is related to frequent rice consumption in mercury (Hg) polluted areas. This article reviews the progress in the research on MeHg accumulation in rice, human exposure and health effects, and nutrient and co-contaminant interactions. Compared with fish, rice is of poor nutritional quality and lacks specific micronutrients identified as having health benefits (e.g., n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, selenium, essential amino acids). The effects of these nutrients on the toxicity of MeHg should be better addressed in future epidemiologic and clinical studies. More emphasis should be given to assessing the health effects of low level MeHg exposure in the long term, with appropriate recommendations, as needed, to reduce MeHg exposure in the rice-eating population.